The return of the Taliban to power in August 2021 has generated a structural dilemma for the  contemporary international order: how can international actors engage a de facto authority that  exercises effective territorial control while withholding formal diplomatic recognition? While  Afghanistan continues to exist as a recognised state in international law, most states have  refused to recognise the Taliban government due to concerns regarding inclusivity,  constitutional process, and systematic restrictions on women’s rights. Yet complete  disengagement has proven impractical in light of acute humanitarian crisis, economic collapse,  and regional security externalities.

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