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Juris Doctorate, Law,  University of California


Master of Laws (LL.M.), Yale Law School/Yale University


Bachelor of Arts (Honours) (B.A. Hons.), Ohio State University
 

Prof. (Dr.) Michael C Davis

Professor of Law and International Affairs

Email mcdavis@jgu.edu.in
Connect with me
Key Expertise Comparative constitutional law; constitutionalism in emerging states; popular protest and democratization; international human rights; political economy of human rights; human rights and political culture; public international law; sovereignty and the state; federalism and autonomy; indigenous people’s rights; Tibetan rights; and Hong Kong’s constitutional development.

Juris Doctorate, Law,  University of California


Master of Laws (LL.M.), Yale Law School/Yale University


Bachelor of Arts (Honours) (B.A. Hons.), Ohio State University
 


Biography

A research associate at both the Weatherhead East Asia Institute at Columbia University and at the US-Asia Law Institute at NYU, Professor Davis has held chaired visiting professorships at Notre Dame and Northwestern universities and senior fellowships at Yale and Harvard law schools.  His scholarship has engaged human rights and constitutional development issues across the Asian region. Long a public intellectual in Hong Kong, he was a professor in the Law Faculty at the University of Hong Kong until late 2020. His most recent book, Freedom Undone, The Assault on Liberal Values and Institutions in Hong Kong (Columbia University Press, 2024) elaborates the Hong Kong experience under Beijing’s authoritarian rule. Beyond academic writing, his commentary has appeared in such popular media as the New York Times, the Washington Post, Foreign Affairs, Nikkei, the Journal of Democracy, Politics and Rights Review, and the South China Morning Post. His series of commentary in the latter on the 2014 Umbrella Movement in Hong Kong won him the 2015 Human Rights Press Award for Commentary awarded by Amnesty International and other affiliates.  As a public intellectual he has also been a frequent contributor to various media broadcast and podcast.
For a more comprehensive bio see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_C._Davis

International Human Rights

Constitutionalism in Emerging States

“Award for Distinguished Service and Outstanding Contribution to the Field of Higher Education in India,” JGU, 2015

Human Rights Press Award for Commentary, Amnesty International, 2015

Global Fellow, Woodrow Wilson International Center, 2019-25

Residential Fellowship, Woodrow Wilson International Center, 2018-19

Reagan Fascell Senior Fellow, US National Endowment for Democracy, 2016-17

J. Landis Martin Visiting Professor of Human Rights, Northwestern University, Chicago, 2005-06

Robert and Marion Short Visiting Professor Human Rights, University of Notre Dame, 2004-05

Frederick K. Cox Visiting Professor Law, Case Western Reserve University, 2000

ORVILLE H. SCHELL Jr. SENIOR FELLOWSHIP IN HUMAN RIGHTS, Yale Law School, 1994-95

Editorial Board, British Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2013-Present

International Advisory Board, Asia-Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law, 2019-Present

Editorial Board, Human Rights Quarterly, 2011-Presen

Editorial Board, Frontiers of Legal Research, 2012-Present

Editorial Advisory Board, Civilitas, 2009-Present

Editorial Board, Journal of Human Rights, 2001-Present

Editorial Board, Social Affairs, 2014-Present

Author, Freedom Undone: The Assault on Liberal Values in Hong Kong (New York: Columbia University Press, AAS Series, 2024) https://cup.columbia.edu/book/freedom-undone/9781952636448  For a discussion of the book see New Books Network at https://newbooksnetwork.com/freedom-undone. Reviewed: Literary Review, April 2024, pp. 29-30, https://literaryreview.co.uk/land-where-allegories-are-banned, and discussion in https://www.wilsoncenter.org/video/freedom-undone-assault-liberal-values-and-institutions-hong-kong 

Author, Making Hong Kong China: The Rollback of Human Rights and the Rule of Law (New York: Columbia University Press, AAS Series, 11/2020). https://cup.columbia.edu/book/making-hong-kong-china/9781952636134 

For a discussion of the book: https://china.usc.edu/video-michael-davis-looks-one-country-two-systems and https://usali.org/institute-news/event-recording-making-hong-kong-china 

New Books Network podcast on the book: https://newbooknetwork.com/making-hong-kong-china 

Author, with Thomas Kellogg, The Promise of Democratization in Hong Kong, Discontent and Rule of Law Challenges, Report on Hong Kong (Washington: Georgetown University and NDI, April 2020). https://www.ndi.org/sites/default/files/Final_04.11.20_The%20Promise%20of%20Democratization%20in%20Hong%20Kong.pdf

Chief Editor, International Intervention in the Post-Cold-War World: Moral Responsibility and Power Politics, (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2004), with Dieter Sepp, Wolfgang Dietrich and Bettina Scholdan.

Editor, Cong Falu, Zhexue He Zhengzhi Guandian Kan Renquan Yu Zhongguo Jiazhiguan (Human Rights and Chinese Values, Legal, Philosophical and Political Perspectives) (Chinese Edition: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Editor, Human Rights and Chinese Values: Legal, Philosophical and Political Perspectives (English Edition: Oxford University Press, 1995).

Coeditor, The Aftermath of the 1989 Crisis in Mainland China (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), with B. J. Lin, et. al.

Author, Constitutional Confrontation in Hong Kong (London: Macmillan Press, 1990; New York: St. Martins Press, 1990) (Excerpts republished in M. Dixon, R. McCorquodale, Cases & Materials on International Law, Blackstone Press, 1995). https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-349-20395-6 
 

“Popular Civil Society Resistance and the Survival of Hong Kong: A Clash of Civilizations,” Fiona de Londras and Cora Chan, China’s National Security Endangering Hong Kong’s Rule of Law? (Hart/Bloomsbury, 2020)

“The Clash of Legal Cultures: Hong Kong Efforts to Embrace the Liberal Rule of Law vs. Beijing’s Hardline Authoritarian Legality,” in Hualing Fu and Weitseng Chen, eds., Authoritarian Legality in Asia: Formation, Development and Transition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020)

“Human Rights and Political Opposition in Hong Kong,” in Sarah Biddulph and Joshua Rosenzweig, ed., Human Rights in China: Contested Meanings (a handbook on human rights in China) (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2019), pp. 588-604.

“US Human Rights Policy and Asia: View from the Region,” in Scott Harold, ed. Pivot to Asia (Washington: Rand Corporation, 2018).

“Chinese Policies on Regional Self-Government: The Case of Tibet,” in Roberto Toniatti and Jens Woelk, eds.,  Regional Autonomy, Cultural Diversity and Differentiated Territorial Government: The Case of Tibet—Chinese and Comparative Perspectives (Oxford and New York: Routledge Press, 2017) Ch. 4. https://www.routledge.com/Regional-Autonomy-Cultural-Diversity-and-Differentiated-Territorial-Government/Toniatti-Woelk/p/book/9780415525350 

“Promises to Keep: The ‘Umbrella Movement,” the Basic Law and Democratic Reform in Hong Kong” in Mahmood Monshipouri, ed., Information Politics, Protests, and Human Rights in the Digital Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), Ch. 11,  pp. 239-266.

“Chinese Policies in Tibet: Should India Remain Concerned?” in Francesco Palermo, Giovanni Poggeschi, Günther Rautz and Jens Woelk (eds.) Globalization, Technologies and Legal Revolution. The Impact of Global Changes on Territorial and Cultural Diversities, on Supranational Integration and Constitutional Theory (Nomos, Baden-Baden, Fall, 2012), pp. 91-112. http://www.nomos-shop.de/Palermo-Poggeschi-Rautz-Woelk-Globalization-Technologies-Legal-Revolution/productview.aspx?product=19776 

“International Recognition of Autonomy for Indigenous Populations: The Case of Tibet,” in Baden Offord, Rob Garbutt, and Beechen Goh, eds., Activating Human Rights and Peace: Theories, Practices and Contexts (Surrey, UK: Ashgate,, 2012), pp. 170-185.

“The Political Economy and Culture of Human Rights in East Asia,” in Sarah Joseph and Adam McBeth, eds., Research Handbook on International Human Rights Law (London: Edward Elgar Publishers, 2010) pp. 414-439.

“Autonomy as an Enduring Concept.” in J. Oliveira and P. Cardinal, eds., One Country, Two Systems, Three Legal Orders: Perspectives of Evolution (Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2009) pp 521-526.

“Interpreting Constitutionalism and Democratization in Hong Kong,” in FU Hualing, Lison Harris, and Simon NM Young, Interpreting Hong Kong’s Basic Law: The Struggle for Coherence (London, Palgrave Publishers, Fall 2007), pp. 77-95.

“Europe, America, Asia: Contemporary Wars and Their Implications for World Orders,” in Peter Wagner and Nathalie Karagiannis, eds., Varieties of World-Making: Beyond Globalization (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007), Chapter 4, pp. 74-89.

“Constitutionalism and Economic Development in Asia: Do Domestic Institutions Matter?” in D. K. Srivastava and C. Raj Kumar, eds., Human Rights and Development: Approaches to the Reform of Governance in Asia (Singapore: Butterworth/Lexis, 2006), Chapter 2, pp. 29-42.

“The Basic Law, Human Rights and Democracy, Theory and Practice,” in Christine Loh, ed., Building Democracy: Creating Good Governance for Hong Kong  (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2003) Ch 1, pp. 12-26.

“The Emerging World Order: State Sovereignty and Humanitarian Intervention,” in Michael Davis, et al, eds., International Intervention in the Post-Cold-War World: Moral Responsibility and  Power Politics (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2004), Chapter 1.

“The Reluctant Intervenor: The UN Security Council, China’s World View and Humanitarian Intervention,” in Michael Davis, et al, eds., International Intervention in the Post-Cold-War World: Moral Responsibility and Power Politics (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2004), Chapter 13, pp. 241-253.

“Constitutional Theory and Hong Kong Practice,” in Green Paper on “Thinking About 2007” Hong Kong, April 2001 (www.hkdf.org).

“Human Rights, Political Values and Development in East Asia,” in Adamantia Pollis and Peter Schwab, eds., Human Rights: New Perspectives, New Realities (New York: Lynne Reiner, 2000) pp. 139-162.

“The Practice of Autonomous and Self-Government Arrangements” a discussion in Tibetan Autonomy and Self-Government: Myth or Reality (New Delhi: Tibetan Parliament and Policy Research Centre: 2000).

“Human Rights in Hong Kong: The First Year in the Transition,” (with Thomas Eldert and Jeffrey Hom) in Joseph W. Dellapenna and Patrick M. Norton, eds., China and Hong Kong in Legal Transition (Chicago: American Bar Assoc., 2000) pp. 177-207.

“The Asian Values Debate and the Role of the State,” in Edmund Ryden, ed., Human Rights and Values in East Asia (Taipei: Fujen University, 1998) p. 194.

“The Emerging Global Scenario and the East Asian Perspective on Human Rights,” in Mathews G. Chunakara, ed., Globalization and Its Impact on Human Rights (Hong Kong: CCA, 1998).

“Toward Modern Concepts of Sovereignty and Statehood,” in J. Henckaerts, ed., The International Legal Status of Taiwan in the New World Order (London: Kluwer Law International, 1996).

“Chinese Perspectives on Human Rights,” in Michael C. Davis, ed., Human Rights and Chinese Values (Oxford University Press, 1995) (Chinese Edition: Oxford University Press, 1997) (Introduction).

“Adopting International Standards of Human Rights in Hong Kong,” in Michael C. Davis, ed., Human Rights and Chinese Values (Oxford University Press, 1995) (Chinese Edition: OUP, 1997).

“The Bill of Rights of Hong Kong Under the Crossfire of Different Concepts of Human Rights,” in W. Jung, Menschenrechte in Ostasien (Sankt Augustin: Konrad-Adinauer-Stiftung, 1993).

“Tiananmen in Hong Kong,” in B. J. Lin et. al., eds., The Aftermath of the 1989 Crisis in Mainland China (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992).

Is the US Using Beijing’s Authoritarian Playbook?” Politics and Rights Review, November 4, 2025. https://politicsrights.com/is-the-us-using-beijings-authoritarian-playbook/?utm_source=mailpoet&utm_medium=email&utm_source_platform=mailpoet Chinese version in Green Bean Media: https://greenbean.media/美國是否正在套用北京的威權手冊/

“Fighting for Democracy is a Crime in Hong Kong,” Journal of Democracy online, November 21, 2024. https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/online-exclusive/fighting-for-democracy-is-a-crime-in-hong-kong /

“The Assault on Liberal Values and Institutions in Hong Kong,” Politics and Rights Review, July 17, 2024. https://politicsrights.com/freedom-liberal-values-institutions-hong-kong/ , also in Chinese in the China Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2/3, July 15, 2024, pp. 26-43. https://chinademocrats.org/?p=3539

“Hong Kong: How Beijing Perfected Repression,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 33/1 2022, pp. 100-115. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/843615

“Beijing’s National Security Law and the Destruction of the Liberal Constitutional Order in Hong Kong,” Academia Sinica Law Journal, Special Issue, March 2022, pp. 21-37. http://publication.iias.sinica.edu.tw/51611112.pdf

US Congressional Testimony: The State of Civil and Political Rights in Hong Kong, The Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission, October 13, 2021. Written testimony, https://humanrightscommission.house.gov/sites/humanrightscommission.house.gov/files/documents/Davis%20TestimonyLantos%20HR%20Commission_0.pdf , oral testimony https://www.c-span.org/person/?131946/MichaelCDavis

US Congressional Testimony: Hong Kong: The Rollback of Human Rights and the Rule of Law, US-China Economic and Security Review Commission Hearing on Hong Kong, in USCC Annual Report, September 8, 2021. Written testimony: https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2021-08/Michael_Davis_Testimony.pdf Oral testimony: https://www.uscc.gov/hearings/us-china-relations-2021-emerging-risks

“Making Hong Kong China: The Rollback of Human Rights and the Rule of Law,” Book excerpt, Democracy Digest, 2021. https://www.demdigest.org/making-hong-kong-china/

“Beijing’s Crackdown on Human Rights and the Rule of Law in Hong Kong,” Asia Policy, Vol. 16/2, Summer 2021, https://www.nbr.org/publication/beijings-crackdown-on-human-rights-and-the-rule-of-law-in-hong-kong/

“The Rollback of Human Rights and the Rule of Law in Hong Kong,” Jamestown China Brief, Vol. 21, Issue 2, March, 2021. https://jamestown.org/program/the-rollback-of-human-rights-and-the-rule-of-law-in-hong-kong/

“Anxiety has always been part of Hong Kong’s handover story,” Index on Censorship (book excerpt), November, 2020. https://www.indexoncensorship.org/2020/11/anxiety-has-always-been-part-of-hong-kongs-handover-story/

“’One Country, One System’ Under Hong Kong’s New National Security Law,” Logos Journal of Modern Society and Culture,” Fall, 2020. http://logosjournal.com/2020/one-country-one-system-under-hong-kongs-new-national-security-constitution/

“Hong Kong is Part of the Mainland Now: Beijing’s New Security Law Has Stifled the Territory’s Autonomy and Hopes,” Foreign Affairs, July 2, 2020. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2020-07-02/hong-kong-part-mainland-now

With Richard Byrne, “Protest Tech: Hong Kong” Wilson Quarterly, January 22, 2020. https://www.wilsonquarterly.com/quarterly/the-power-of-protest/protest-tech-hong-kong/

With Victoria Tinbor Hui, “Will China Crush the Protests in Hong Kong, Why Beijing Doesn’t Need to Send in Troops,” Foreign Affairs, August 5, 2019. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2019-08-05/will-china-crush-protests-hong-kong

“Strengthening Constitutionalism in Asia,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 28 (October 2017) pp. 147-161. www.journalofdemocracy.org/article/strengthening-constitutionalism-asia

“The Basic Law, Universal Suffrage and the Rule of Law in Hong Kong,” Hastings International and Comparative Law Review, Vol. 38/2, 2016, pp. 275-298.

“China Tightens Its Two-Systems Approach for Hong Kong” YaleGlobal online, August 2015. http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/china-tightens-its-two-systems-approach-hong-kong

“Hong Kong’s Umbrella Movement: Beijing’s Broken Promises,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 26, April 2015, pp. 101-110. https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/hong-kongs-umbrella-movement-beijings-broken-promises/

"Can International Law Help Resolve the Conflicts Over Uninhabited Islands in the East China Sea?" Denver Journal of International Law, Vol. 43/2 (2015) pp. 119-163. http://researchblog.law.hku.hk/2015/03/michael-davis-on-east-china-sea.html

“Hong Kong’s Umbrella Movement and Beijing’s Failure to Honor the Basic Law,” E-IR, Fall, 2014.

“China and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: The Case of Tibet,” in E-IR, special issue edited by Marc Woons, Restoring Indigenous Self-Determination: Theoretical and Practical Approaches (Bristol: e-international relations, 2014), pp. 97-105.. http://www.e-ir.info/2014/05/27/china-the-un-declaration-on-the-rights-of-indigenous-peoples-the-tibetan-case/ (2014).

“Federalism and Democratic Reform in China: With Lessons from India,” Jindal Journal of Public Policy, Vol. 2 (2014), pp. 4-27.

“Tibet and China’s National Minority Policies,” Orbis (Summer, 2012), Vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 429-446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.orbis.2012.05.009/

“Human Rights and India’s Struggle Against Corruption, A Review Article,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 34, pp.624-627 (2012).

“Tibet,” The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, 2012) http://www.mpepil.com/

“The Political Economy and Culture of Human Rights in East Asia,” Jindal Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 1/1, pp. 48-72 (Fall, 2011).

“Repression, Resistance and Resilience in Tibet,” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 12/2, pp. 29-38 (Fall, 2011).

“Chinese Policies in Tibet: Should India Remain Concerned?” Jindal Global Law Review, Vol. 2/2, pp. 79-98 (2011).

“Divergence Grows Between China and the West,” YaleGlobal Online, December 23, 2008,

“Establishing a Workable Autonomy in Tibet,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 30, pp. 227-58 (June 2008).

“For Talks to Succeed China Must Admit to a Tibet Problem,” YaleGlobal Online, May 16, 2008 (http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=10811)

“After the December Decision: Eight Hurdles on the Road to Full Democracy in Hong Kong,” Hong Kong Journal (a publication of the Carnegie Endowment), Vol. 10 (April 2008).

“State Sovereignty and Regional Autonomy in Asia,” Proceedings of the American Society of International Law, 2008.

“Constituting Democracy in Hong Kong—Ten Years On,” China Perspectives, Vol. 2007/2, pp. 28-34 (July 2007).

“The Quest for Self-Rule in Tibet,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 18/4, pp 157-171 (October 2007).

“International Intervention in An Age of Crisis and Terror: UN Reform and Regional Practice,” Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law, Vol. 15/1, pp. 1-38 (2006). https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1946748

“The Basic Law and Democratization in Hong Kong,” Loyola University of Chicago International Law Review, Vol. 3/3, pp. 165-185 (Spring 2006).

Constitutionalism and the Politics of Democracy in Hong Kong,” Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, Vol. 30/2, pp.165-177 (Summer 2006).

“Human Rights and the War in Iraq,” Journal of Human Rights, Vol. 4, pp. 1-8 (2005)

“Sovereignty and the State in Asia: The Challenges of the Emerging International Order,” Proceedings of the American Society of International Law, 2005, p. 411.

"East Asia After the Crisis: Human Rights, Constitutionalism and State Reform,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 26/1, pp. 126-151 (2004).

“Constitutionalism and New Democracies,” George Washington International Law Review, Vol. 36/3, pp. 681-693 (2004).

“The Scars of SARS—Balancing Human Rights and Public Health Concerns,” The Hong Kong Lawyer (May 2003) (with C. Raj Kumar).

“Constitutionalism and Asian Values,” Nanjing University Law Review, Vol. 17, pp. 1-21 (Spring 2002) (Chinese).

“The Future of Tibet: A Chinese Dilemma,” Human Rights Review, Vol. 2/2, p. 7-18 (2001).

“Constitutionalism and Hong Kong’s Future,” Journal of Contemporary China, Vol. 8, No. 21, pp. 263-73 (1999).

“The Case for Chinese Federalism,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 10/2 pp. 124-37 (1999).

“Constitutionalism Under Chinese Rule: Hong Kong After the Handover,” Denver Journal of International Law and Policy, Vol. 27/2 pp. 275-312 (1999).

“Constitutionalism and Political Culture: The Debate Over Human Rights and Asian Values,” Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol. 11, pp. 109-47 (1998).

“The Price of Rights: Constitutionalism and East Asian Economic Development,” Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 20, pp. 303-37 (1998).

“International Commitments to Keep: Hong Kong Beyond 1997,” World Affairs, Vol. 160/2, p. 70 (1997), republished in Southern Illinois University Law Journal, Vol. 22, p. 293 (1998).

“The East Asian Human Rights Debate,” Proceedings of the American Society of International Law, Vol. 92 (1998).

“Constitutionalism in Hong Kong: Politics Versus Economics,” University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law, Vol. 18, pp. 157-93 (1997) (Reprinted Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, Reprint Series, No. 23, 1997).

“International Commitments to Keep,” Proceedings of the American Society Of International Law, Vol. 91, p. 191 (1997).

“Human Rights and the Founding of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region: A Framework for Analysis,” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, Vol. 34, p. 301 (1996) (Reprinted Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, Reprint Series No. 21, 1996).

“Human Rights in Asia: China and the Bangkok Declaration,” Buffalo Journal of International Law, Vol. 2, p. 215 (1995).

“Chinese Perspectives on the Bangkok Declaration and the Development of Human Rights in Asia,” Proceedings of the American Society of International Law, Vol. 82, p. 157 (1995).

“The Concept of Statehood and the Status of Taiwan,” Journal of Chinese Law, Vol. 4, p.135 (1990) (Reprinted Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, Reprint Series No. 9, 1991).

“Constitutional Discourse,” Asian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 11, p. 104 (1989).

“Anglo-American Constitutionalism with Chinese Characteristics,” American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 36, p.761 (1988).

“Where Two Legal Systems Collide: An American Constitutional Scholar in Hong Kong,” Case Western Res. Journal of Int’l Law, Vol. 20, p. 127 (1988).

“A Common Law Court in a Marxist Country: The Case for Judicial Review in the Hong Kong SAR,” Denver J. of International Law and Politics, Vol. 16, p. 1 (1987).

“Domestic Development of International Law: A Proposal for an International Concept of the Act of State Doctrine,” Texas International Law Journal, Vol. 20, p. 341 (1985).

“Carriage of Goods by Sea: Should the United States Adopt the Hamburg Rules,” Hastings International and Comparative Law Review, Vol. 3, p. 105 (1980).
Email mcdavis@jgu.edu.in
Key Expertise Comparative constitutional law; constitutionalism in emerging states; popular protest and democratization; international human rights; political economy of human rights; human rights and political culture; public international law; sovereignty and the state; federalism and autonomy; indigenous people’s rights; Tibetan rights; and Hong Kong’s constitutional development.
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